Mukhlis Tanveer Jan writer.

English Literature with Tanveer

SECTION A

INTRODUCTION

UNDERSTANDING POETRY

Poetry is language that is carefully arranged in lines. It can be viewed as a composition written in verse, designed to convey a vivid and imaginative sense of life in language chosen for is sound and rhythms, as well as for its meaning. Poetry requires more from a reader’s intelligence to unlock meaning. Poetry expresses meaning in a tighter, more compact way than any form of literature. Poetry helps the reader to experience things that they may not have noticed.

Poetry dates back to the beginning of human communities when poetic forms were used and passed along from one generation to the next.

Traditional poems are written in stanzas, or groups of lines that are set off visually from the other lines in a poem. Many traditional poems are narrative poems (poems that tell stories). Narrative poems have the same literary elements you find in fiction, such as plot, characters and setting. The ballad is an example of a traditional poetry. Most of the earlier poems had definite rules and patterns for rhyme and meter.

On the other hand, modern poems are characteristically written in the language of everyday speech, and it may be about a variety of subjects from celebration of nature to complex issues like politics and conflict. Modern poets often ignore the rules and patterns that characterize traditional poems. Despite their disregard for these restraints, modern poets still produce what the reader recognizes as poetry. Most African poems are modern. The rest of this section gives a detailed description of important elements of poetry, figures of speech, sound devices and types of poems.

IMPORTANT ELEMENTS OF POETRY

ALLUSION

A reference to a person, a place, an event or a literary work that a writer expects a reader to recognize or to be familiar. Allusions often include literature, mythology, religion, history or geography. The Midas Touch, A Goliath, Jacob and a Robin Hood is all examples of allusion.

DICTION

A writer’s choice of words. Diction can be formal or informal, abstract or concrete, depending on their subjects, audiences and purposes. For example, the writer of a humorous poem might refer to a young child as a "bundle of joy" or a "kid". A writer of a serious poem might use more formal words like baby and infant. The writer’s choice of words also contributes to their own unique writing style. Furthermore the poet’s choice of words determines the mood of the poem.

LANGUAGE

Poetic language refers to the words and phrases that evoke images in the reader’s mind or that appeal to the reader’s emotions. Poetic language is distinctly precise. For instance, instead of the well-known verb Run, a poet might use the more poetic verb like dart, jog, scurry, race, and sprint or hasten. Poetic language is suggestive, having emotional overtones called connotations. Example, the verb slaughter has a stronger appeal to the emotion than kill. Both words may denote the same but have different connotations. As illustrated above, h te language of poetry is influenced by the diction. The skillful application of images (see imagery) and the use of figurative language also influence poetic language. Figurative language is not literally true but it appeals to the reader’s imagination. The use of Hyperbole, Simile, Metaphor and Personification indicates the correct use of poetic language (see figurative

language and connotation).

MOOD

The tone that prevails in a poem determines its mood or atmosphere. The poet’s choice of words influence the mood which may be melancholy, joyful, serene et. Connotative words, sensory images and figurative language contribute to the mood of a poem, as do the sound and rhythm of the language used.

STRUCTURE

In poetry, structure refers to the arrangement of words and lines to produce a desired effect.

STYLE

In poetry, structure refers to the particular way in which a writer uses figurative language, imagery, rhythm, sentence length, diction and tone, Style refers not to what is being said but to how it is said. In general, a literary style might be described as heavy-handed, obscure, crisp, flowery, conversational, wordy or elegant.

CONNOTATION

Connotation is the suggested meanings that surround the literal definition of a word. The literal definition of a word is based on dictionary meaning (Denotation). For example the literal definition or denotation of the word honey is "a sweet, sticky, yellowish substances made by bees from nectar"

However, the word honey can connote or also mean a loved one, a husband or wife. This emotional responses is the connotation of the word.

SUBJECT MATTER

The content of a poem. It is also reference to the basic meaning of the poem. The meaning of a poem depends on the accurate perception of the poem’s subject matter. Titles may help to define what a poet is talking about (Subject matter). Sometimes however, the title simply names the thing, person, memory or idea which caused the poet to ponder some deeper subject.

THEME

It is the subject of a talk or a poem. It is the general idea, insight, perception or impression about life that a writer wishes to convey in a literacy work. Sometimes, a theme can be expressed directly. However, most poems express their themes implicitly. It must be noted that theme is what the writer is trying to show the reader.

TONE

The tone of voice refers to the voice in which the reader imagines the writer to be speaking; the tone can be rapid, slow, loud, soft, happy, sad, humorous, affectionate, bitter, playful, solemn, mocking etc. The writer often times conveys tone by rhythm, choice of words, images length of sentences and even punctuation. Tone also determines the writer’s attitude towards the reader. Through tone, the poet can plunge the reader in the mood of fear, anger, amusement or shock.

FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE

Poetry makes use of figurative language, that is, language that is not intended to be interpreted in a literal sense. This is done to achieve special effects. Such language makes use of devices called figures of speech. A figure of speech is a word or expression that is not meant to be interpreted in a literal sense. There are more than two hundred different kinds of figures of speech, which have been identified. However, the commonly used ones will be described in this anthology.

HYPERBOLE

A figure of speech which uses exaggeration or overstatement in poetry. Example, thanks a million. It is clearly impossible to thank any one a million times, however, it is clear that the statement is just an expression of deep appreciation.

APOSTROPHE

A figure of speech in which a dead person, an absent and abstract quality or something inanimate or non-human is addressed directly. Example, some poems in this anthology like Expelled employ the apostrophe technique.

IMAGERY

These are words or phrases that create mental picture or images. Most images appeal to the reader’s sense of sight (Visual images). However, other images appeal to other senses. Some appeal to the sense of smell (olfactory images) other images may appeal to the sense of touch). Sense images can appeal to several senses at the same time. Images can be identified through the use of metaphor, simile and personification.

METAPHOR

It is a figure of speech that makes a comparison between two things which are dissimilar but have something in common. A metaphor compares without the use of as or like. Example, Peter is the lion in the battle. Here Peter’s courage is compared to the lion but this is done indirectly.

METONYMY

In Greek, "change of name". A figure of speech in which the name of some object or idea is substituted for another to which it has some relation. Example, She saw three sails in the harbor. Sail stands for the ships in the harbor. In the poem on His Blindness, the light is used to replace the related word vision.

OXYMORON

A figure of speech that combines opposite or contradictory ideas and terms as in sweet sorrow, honest thief, living death.

PERSONIFICATION

A figure of speech in which something non-human is given human qualities, pregnant clouds, wind whistles, trees bend are examples of personification in the poem. An Africa Thunderstorm. The clouds, the wind and trees are given human qualities.

PUN

The use of a word or phrase to suggest two or more meanings at the same time or the use of two different words or phrases that sounds alike. The words need not be spelled the same way. Pun is a source of humour. Sometimes a pun makes more than one interpretation possible. Example, when the battle is lost and won’, suggest two or more meanings.

RHETORICAL QUESTION

A question asked, not to get information, but to achieve a stylistic effect. It helps in making emphasis on a point by putting it in a question, the answer which supports his arguments.

SIMILE

A figure of speech comparing two unlike things through the use of specific words of comparison such as like, as, than or resembles. A simile unlike a metaphor is a direct comparison between two dissimilar things. Example she behaves like a wolf.

SYMBOL

Any object, person, place or action that has a meaning in itself and that also stands for something’s larger than itself, such as a quality, an attitude, a belief or a value. In other words, symbols can be seen as sign pointing to meanings. There are some common symbols that are easily recognized, these are called Universal Symbols. For instance, the cross represents Christianity, the flag represents a nation, a rose is a symbol of love, a skull is often a symbol of death hand the shape of the heart symbolizes love. Poets can also create their own symbols’ these are referred to as contextual symbols…

SYNECDOCHE

A figure of speech (the opposite of metonymy) in which the whole or a larger classification is used to mean or represent one of its subparts. Example, the law represents the police. In other words, the part is used to represent a whole. Land and ocean in the poem On His Blindness represents the whole earth.

CONCEIT

A fanciful image. Metaphysical conceit is often used by metaphysical poets. It is an elaborate or startling comparison between objects which are apparently dissimilar.

IRONY

This is the expression of the exact opposite of what one means though the words are not meant to be taken at face value e.g. "Oh! What a beautiful voice you have" (when actually the person has a croaky voice)

Michael won’t be late: you known how punctual he always is (when actually Michael is a notorious late comer who has been late for school many times)

PARADOX

A statement which appears to be contradictory at the surface level but which on closer scrutiny bears some truth. In paradox the ideas are self-contradictory, while in oxymoron, the words placed side by side-contradictory.

E.g. The child is the father of the man

If you want peace you prepare for war

SARCASM

This is an irony that is used with contempt. It is usually without disguise, it is a direct ridicule to show annoyance or an unkind joke. Sarcasm aims to hurt its victim or listener. e.g. A flight is delayed for two hours. Somebody then remarks: ‘Good and efficient services’

EUPHEMISM

This is a figure of speech which states an unpleasant fact in a pleasant way in order to conceal its real nature.

e.g. He passed away quietly in the night (i.e. died)

The dump is a sight to behold (repulsive)

CLIMAX

This is a figurative device which places ideas in an ascending order of importance. Hence, events develop from a lower level to a higher level, increasing in succession.

e.g. the queen’s mother was mourned by her family, countless admirers, her town’s people and the entire world.

The warrior came, he saw and he conquered.

ANTI-CLIMAX

It is the direct opposite of climax. Events or ideas are arranged in descending order of importance in such a way that the ideas lose their importance or gravity.

e.g. The certain lost his two children, household goods and his pet dog in the January 27th bomb blast

The professor lost his head, his job and his books after the nation-wide strike

LITOTE

This is a deliberate understatement by one who uses the negative in order to express the opposite. It also involves the use of double negativity

e.g. let the past go; we shall be sorry to miss it (in other words, we shall be glad)

The girl, though petite, is not lacking in intelligence.

SOUND DEVICES USED IN POETRY

Sound is a very significant component of poetry. Combined with rhythm, sound devices attach beauty to poems since they are primarily designed for reading. Sound devices significantly influence the tone and mood of a poem. Below are examples of important sound devices.

ALLITERATION

This refers to the repetition of initial consonant sounds of words. Alliteration attracts the ear by emphasizing and linking the ideas these express. Example sweet-tear sodden slush clearly shows the repetition f the consonant sound S. Wild West Wind is also an example of alliteration. Poet use alliteration to emphasize certain words, to create mood, to unify lines, to reinforce meaning and to create musical quality in poems.

ASSONANCE

The repetition of similar vowel sounds in poetry. Assonance enhances musical effect and emphasizes certain sounds, which create mood. Example, in the poem I will pronounce Your Name "coin of gold, shining coal indicates the repetition of the vowel sound). Assonance is used to unify passages and lines in poetry.

CONSONANCE

The repetition of similar consonant sounds in a group of words or within words which may or may not be in sequence. The term is sometimes used for a form of partial rhyme wherein the consonants are the same but the vowels are different example took/tack, bitter/butter, trembling/tumble, rumble/tremble.

ONAMATOPEIA

The use of a word whose sound in some degree imitates or suggests its meaning Buzz, rumble, moo, snap, boom, rustle, hiss, clang, are all examples of onomatopoeia. The names of some birds are onomatopoetic, imitating the cries of the birds named; cuckoo, owl, crow, bobwhite are few examples. Onomatopoeia is mostly used in poetry.

REPETITION

This is fundamental device in poetry. It allows the writer/speaker to make emphasis on the point. The refrain and the repetend are obvious examples. It should also be noted that the assonance, consonance and alliteration are also based on repetition.

RHYTHM

The arrangement of stress and unstressed syllables into a pattern. This gives a poem a distinct musical quality. Poets use rhythm to echo meaning.

RHYME

The repetition of sounds in two or more words or phrases that appear close to each other, in a poem. Examples, song long, shiver river, leap deep. When the rhyme occurs at the end of lines it is called end rhyme. The poem below has end rhyme.

"I shall go

Up and down

In my gown

Gorgeously arrayed

Boned and strayed"

On the other hand, rhyme that occurs within a single line as in the following example is called internal rhyme. In An African Thunderstorm "chasing nothing" in line 9 (second stanza) and "rumble tremble" in the last stanza are examples of internal rhyme. The pattern of end rhyme in a poem is called a rhyme scheme. The pattern can be charted/identified by assigning a letter of the alphabet, beginning with the letter a, to each line. Lines that rhyme are given the same letter. Notice the rhyme scheme in the following stanza:

:Hark! Tis an elfin-storm from fairy land (a)

Of haggard seeming, but a boon indeed (b)

Arise- arise! Te morning is at hand (a)

The bloated wassailelrs will never heed" (b)

(From The Eve of St. Agnes by John Keats)

According to the letters marked against each line, it is clear that the rhyme scheme is abab. It should be noted that rhyming can also occur wherein the final sounds of the words are similar but not identical (as opposed to exact rhyme). This type of rhyme is called approximate rhyme (also slant rhyme or off rhyme). Example, took/look is an exact rhyme, look – lack is an approximate rhyme.

CACOPHONY

Harsh or disagreeable sounds which are frequently introduced for poetic effect

ACCENT

The stress placed upon certain syllables in a line of verse

TYPES OF POEMS AND LINES

1). BALLAD

A story told in verse and often meant to be sung. Ballads are classified as Folk Ballads or Literary Ballads. The subject matter of folk ballads stems from the everyday life of common people. The themes of most ballads are often tragic i.e. disappointed love, jealousy told through dialogue.

2). CONFESSIONAL POETRY

Poetry that makes frank, explicit use of moments in the poets life.

3). CONCRETE POEM

A concrete poem is one in which the shape of the poem suggests something about the poem’s meaning.

4). COUPLET

Two consecutive lines of poetry that rhyme.

5). DRAMATIC POEM

A narrative poem in which one or more characters speak.

6). DRAMATIC MONOLOUE

A narrative poem or any poem in which one character speaks to one or more listeners whose replies is not given in the poem. Example, To His Coy Mistress is in the form of a dramatic monologue.

7) ELEGY

A poem of mourning, usually over the death of an individual or the passing f life and beauty.

8) END-STOPPED LINE

A line of verse with a pause at the end often signaled by a comma, dash or full stop.

9) EPIC

A long narrative poem describing the deeds of a great hero and reflecting the values of the culture from which it originated.

10) LYRIC POEM

Poetry that explores emotions and sensations rather than telling a story. Lyric poems are usually short. Lyric poems maintain a musical effect.

11). NARRATIVE POEM

A poem that tells a story like the epic ballad. Sohrab and Rustum is an example of short narrative poem. Other works like Homer’s Illiad and Milton’s Paradise Lost are all examples of narrative poem.

12) OCTAVE

An eight-line poem or stanza. It could also refer to the first eight lines of an Italian sonnet.

13) ODE

A serious, dignified lyric poem, which is usually written for a special occasion; in honour of a particular person; an abstract idea or a season.

14). REFRAIN

A word, phrase, line or group of lines repeated regularly in a poem, usually at the end of each stanza. It serves to emphasize a particular idea.

15) REQUIEM

A poem for the repose of the dead

16) RUN-ON LINE

A line of poetry t hat has no pause at its end, but "runs on" naturally to tht next line.

17) SONNET

A lyric poem of fourteen lines. There are two types of sonnets, Italian sonnet and Shakespearean Sonnet. A sonnet has a well-defined subject, and often focuses on one idea, thought or feelings. Most known sonnet have different rhyme scheme.

18) STANZA

A unit of poem that is longer than a single line. Some stanzas are long and some are relatively short. Some poems have equal numbers of lines in each stanza of their poems and others have varying numbers and length.

19) SESTET

A six line poem or stanza. Sometimes, the term sestet refers to the last six lines of the Italian sonnet.

20) PASTORAL POETRY

These are poems or poetry related to or portraying country life. Example an African Thunderstorm is a pastoral.

21) QUATRAIN

A four line stanza or a poem of four lines. It can also refer to a group of four lines unified by a rhyme scheme.

22) ROMANTIC POETRY

These are poems that express feeling rather than intellect. Romantic poems deal with wild mature in contrast to order and proportion. Romantic poems are characteristically simple and a lot of nature images are used. Also, romantic poems employ the use of sensory images that illustrate the theme of the poem. Romantic poems also take into consideration the personal account of the poet or speaker. Romantic poems are also escapist in character; the poems are depicted as a source of escaping the problems of this world. An example of Romantic poem in this anthology is Wordsworth’s Daffodils.

23) METAPHSICAL POEMS

These are poems that employ the use of complex or farfetched imagery. Such images are known as metaphysical conceit. A conceit is a witty argument that characterizes all metaphysical poems. An example of a metaphysical poem. An example of a metaphysical poem in this anthology is John Donne’s The Sun Rising.

24) TERCET (Or TRIPLET)

This is a stanza of three lines, often with one rhyme.

STRATEGIES FOR READING POETRY

When we read poems, it is important to listen to the words. Often, they say more than they directly tell us. Keep in mind the following tips as you read poetry.

Use the title to get a clue to the topic of the poem.

Do not stop at the end of the line unless there is a mark of punctuation indicating that you should do so.

Look for the meaning. One way to do this is to pay attention to the punctuation. Although lines may flow from one to the next, ideas are often expressed as statements or questions.

Try to see in your mind the picture created by the words. In a poem that tells a story, look for the action and visualize the characters who determine the action. In reading poetry that focuses on an image or an emotion, listen for the voice of the poem. Notice how the selection of words (choice of words) of the poet helps you to visualize an object or experience and emotion.

Give careful attention to each word in a poem. A poet use words precisely and sparingly, each word is significant.

Reading aloud also helps in the appreciation of poems. Try listening to the poem’s sound; you will get insight into the meaning. Hear the beat of the rhythm, the pattern of rhyme and the repetition of sounds.

Keep in mind that the speaker of a poem is not necessarily the poet but rather the voice the poet has chosen to communicate the experience. That voice is known as the personal.

What is the rhyme scheme of the poem?

Give examples of Assonance in the poem

Give an example of internal rhyme in the poem?

UNSEEN PROSE

READ THE PASSAGE AND ANSWER THE QUESTIONS

Here in the station, it is in no way different save that the city is busy in its snow. But the old men cling to their seats as though they were symbolic and could not be given up. Now and then they sleep, their grey old heads resting with painful awkwardness on the backs of the benches.

Also, they are not at rest. For an hour, they may sleep in the gasping exhaustion of the ill-nourished and aged, who have to walk in the night. Then, a policeman comes by on his round and nudges them upright.

"You cant sleep here", he growls.

A strange ritual then begins. An old man is difficult to wake. One man after a slight lurch does not move at all, he sleeps on steadily. Once in a while, one of the sleepers will not wake; he will have his wish to die in the great droning centre of the hive rather than in some lonely room fulfilled.

The style of writing is

Argumentative

Expostulatory

Narrative

Expository

"…on the backs of the benches" illustrates

Synecdoche

Epithet

Assonance

Personification

3. The passage conveys a mood of

(a) Defiance

(b) hope

(c). Fear

(d) despair

4. "… gasping exhaustion of the ill-nourished and aged" infers

A. Helplessness

B. Slowness

C. Sadness

D. Tiredness

5. "Droning" and "hive" illustrate

A. anecdonte

B. Epigram

C. allusion

D. Epitaph

Reading the poem and answer the questions

Sleep, O Sleep,

With thy Rod of Incantation,

Charm my Imagination,

Then, only then, I cease to weep

By thy power,

The virgin, by Time O’ertaken

For Years forlorn, forsaken

Enjoys the happy Hour

What’s to sleep?

‘Tis a visionary Blessing;

A Dream that’s past expressing;

Our utmosts wish possessing;

So may I always keep.

The poem is

An epic

An ode

A lyric

A ballad

The dominant device used in the first line is

Oxymoron

Apostrophe

Rhyme

Metaphor

The poem makes use of

End-stopped lines

Run-on lines

Rhyme

Metaphor

"Sleep" in the poem is an example of

Alliteration

Assonance

Onomatopoeia

Pun

The power of "sleep" is described as

Majestic

Magical

Poetic

Worshipful

Read the poem below and answer the questions

Ah! Fair face gone from sight,

With all its light

Of eyes, that pierced the deep

Of human right,

Ah! Fair lips hushed in death

Now their glad breath

Breathes not upon our air

Music that, saith

Love, only, and things fair.

Ah! Lost brother! Ah! Sweet

Still hands and feet!

May those feet haste to reach

The poem is an example of a/an

Lullaby

Elegy

Epitaph

ode

The first stanza looks at death as a form of

Nightmare

Trance

Dream

Sleep

The last stanza speaks of a place

Where no one will speak but love

Where love will speak for us

Of eternal joy and love

Where we love passionately

Read the poem and answer the questions

When the sun rises in the morning

A new day is born

Light dawns and illuminate s the horizone

Diligent foot-worker

Leg lithe, foot loose

To frantic drums

And frenetic flutes

Acrobat strokes swift in the air

Wrought masterly like

A frenzied antelope

Gyrating to the April Music

Of the lush Savannah

The poem describes

A, dancing

B. Wrestling

C. Hunting

D. Drumming

The atmosphere of the poem is one of

Anxiety

Excitement

Eagerness

Despair

"frenetic flutes" illustrates the use of

Hyperbole

Symbolism

Metaphor

Ah! Fair lips hushed in death

Now their glad breath

Breathes not upon our air

Music that, saith

Love, only, and things fair.

Ah! Lost brother! Ah! Sweet

Still hands and feet!

May those feet haste to reach

Those hands to greet,

Us, where love needs no speech

The rhyme scheme is

Aabah, ccdcd, eefef

Aabba, ccddc, ceffe

Ababb, cdcdd, efeff

Aaab, cccdd, eeeff

The poem is an example of a/an

Lullaby

Elegy

Epitaph

ode

The first stanza looks at death as a form of

Nightmare

Trance

Dream

Sleep

… of eyes, that pierced the deep of human nights! Is an example of

Synecdoche

Metonymy

Hyperbole

Anecdote

Read the poem and answer the questions

When the sun rises in the morning

A new day is born

Light dawns and illuminate s the horizon

When the sun sets in the evening

A day is dead

Darkness falls and eclipses the horizon

Between sunrise and sunset

A span of life is run

So make the best of time

For the light of day

Will surely be replaced

By the darkness of night

The poem is

A ballad

An ode

A sonnet

An elegy

The dominant literary device in the poem is

Personification

Simile

Metaphor

Metonymy

"A span of life is run" implies

Light of day

Best of time

Darkness of night

Course of life

Diligent foot-worker

Leg lithe, foot loose

To frantic drums

And frenetic flutes

Acrobat strokes swift in the air

Wrought masterly like

A frenzied antelope

Gyrating to the April Music

Of the lush Savannah

The poem describes

A, dancing

B. Wrestling

C. Hunting

D. Drumming

The atmosphere of the poem is one of

Anxiety

Excitement

Eagerness

Despair

"frenetic flutes" illustrates the use of

Hyperbole

Symbolism

Metaphor

Metonymy

The dominant literary device in the poem is

Personification

Simile

Onomatopoeia

Alliteration

The poem is an example of a/an

Lyric

Ode

Pastoral

Ballad

The Definition of Literature

Literature encompasses written, spoken, or sung works that express ideas, emotions, and stories through language. It is a reflection of human experiences, culture, and society. Literature plays a crucial role in our lives by:

- Entertainment: Literature offers enjoyment and escapism through engaging stories and characters.

- Education: It educates readers about different cultures, historical events, and diverse perspectives.

- Critical Thinking: It encourages critical analysis and helps develop strong analytical skills.

- Communication: Literature fosters effective communication by refining one's language and expression.

2. Types of Literature:

- Prose: Written or spoken language that follows a natural flow without metrical structure, including novels, short stories, essays, and speeches.

- Poetry: Utilizes rhythm, meter, and often rhyming schemes to convey emotions, ideas, and imagery.

- Drama: Presented through dialogue and actions performed on a stage, typically involving characters and a plot.

- Fiction: Imaginative storytelling that may not necessarily be based on real events.

- Non-fiction: Factual and informational works, such as biographies, autobiographies, essays, and journalistic pieces.

3. Sources of Literature:

- Primary Sources: Original works created by the author, e.g., novels, poems, and plays.

- Secondary Sources: Critiques, analyses, and interpretations of primary sources, e.g., literary reviews and scholarly articles.

- Oral Tradition: Stories and folklore passed down through generations orally.

- Digital Media: Blogs, online articles, and social media can also be sources of modern literature.

4. Purpose of Literature:

- Entertainment: To captivate and engage readers or audiences.

- Education: To inform, teach, and provoke thought.

- Cultural Preservation: To preserve and transmit cultural values, traditions, and history.

- Social Commentary: To critique and reflect on societal issues and human behavior.

- Artistic Expression: To convey emotions, ideas, and creativity through words.

5. Characteristics of Drama:

- Dialogue: Drama relies on conversations and interactions among characters.

- Conflict: Conflict is central to most dramas, creating tension and driving the plot.

- Setting: The physical and social environment in which the story unfolds.

- Characterization: The development of characters, their motivations, and transformations.

- Plot: The sequence of events that make up the story.

- Themes: Underlying ideas or messages explored within the drama.

- Staging: The visual and auditory elements of a theatrical production, including costumes, lighting, and sound.

Mukhlis Tanveer Jan Kurd From killi Behramshahi Mastung As a Writer who wrote this book for Students which helps them in public service commission examination.

Quetta library Students.