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English Literature

Welcome to class!

In today’s class, we will be talking about figures of speech. Enjoy the class!

Figures of Speech

Figures of Speech classnotes.ng

Meaning of figures of speech

Figures of speech can be defined as the use of a word or a phrase, which transcends its literal interpretation. It can be a special repetition, arrangement or omission of words with literal meaning, or a phrase with a specialized meaning not based on the literal meaning of words in I, as in idiom, metaphor, simile, hyperbole, personification, or synecdoche. Figures of speech often provide emphasis, the freshness of expression, or clarity.

However, clarity may also suffer from their use, as any figure of speech introduces an ambiguity between literal and figurative interpretation. A figure of speech is sometimes called a rhetorical figure or a locution.

Types of figures of speech

1. Alliteration:

Alliteration is a series of words or phrases that all (or almost all) start with the same sound. These sounds are typically consonants to give more stress to that syllable. You’ll often come across alliteration in poetry, titles of books and poems and tongue twisters.

The popular writer, Jane Austen is a fan of this device, for example, her books Pride and Prejudice and Sense and Sensibility exemplifies this.

Also, another example is the tongue twister “Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers.”

2. Anaphora:

Anaphora is when a word or phrase is repeated at the beginning of multiple sentences throughout a piece of writing. It’s used to emphasize the repeated phrase and evoke strong feelings in the audience. A famous example of anaphora is Winston Churchill’s “We Shall Fight on the Beaches” speech. Throughout this speech, he repeats the phrase “we shall fight” while listing numerous places where the British army will continue battling during WWII. He did this to rally both troops and the British people and to give them confidence that they would still win the war.

3. Euphemism:

A euphemism is when a more mild or indirect word or expression is used in place of another word or phrase that is considered harsh, blunt, vulgar, or unpleasant. An example is “I’m so sorry, but he didn’t make it.” The phrase “didn’t make it” is a more polite and less blunt way of saying that someone has died.

4. Hyperbole:

Hyperbole is an exaggerated statement that’s not meant to be taken literally by the reader. It is often used for comedic effect and/or emphasis. An example is: “He ate a mountain of pounded yam”. The individual in question is not eating a mountain but rather a pounded yam that is much in appearance.

5. Imagery:

Imagery is when an author describes a scene, thing, or idea so that it appeals to our senses (taste, smell, sight, touch, or hearing). This device is often used to help the reader visualize parts of the story by creating a strong mental picture. A typical example is seen in William Wordsworth’s famous poem “I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud”:

When all at once I saw a crowd,

A host of golden Daffodils;

Beside the Lake, beneath the trees,

Fluttering and dancing in the breeze.

6. Irony:

The irony is when a statement is used to express an opposite meaning than the one expressed by it. There are three types of irony in literature:

Verbal irony: When someone says something but means the opposite (similar to sarcasm). An example of this type of irony can be found in Edgar Allan Poe’s “The Cask of Amontillado”. In this short story, a man named Montresor plans to get revenge on another man named Fortunato. As they toast, Montresor says, “And I, Fortunato – I drink to your long life.” This statement is ironic because we the readers already know by this point that Montresor plans to kill Fortunato.

Situational irony: When something happens that’s the opposite of what was expected or intended to happen. An example of this is seen in the case whereby a girl wakes up late for school and quickly rushes to get there. As soon as she arrives, though, she realizes that it’s Saturday and there is no school.

Dramatic irony: When the audience is aware of the true intentions or outcomes, while the characters are not. As a result, certain actions and/or events take on different meanings for the audience than they do for the characters involved. An example of this is seen in William Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet. Romeo commits suicide to be with Juliet; however, the audience (unlike poor Romeo) knows that Juliet is not dead – just asleep.

7. Onomatopoeia:

Onomatopoeia is a word (or group of words) that represents a sound and resembles or imitates the sound it stands for. It is often used for dramatic, realistic, or poetic effect. Examples include Buzz, boom, chirp, creak, sizzle, zoom, etc.

8. Oxymoron:

An oxymoron is a combination of two words that, together, express a contradictory meaning. This device is often used for emphasis, for humour, to create tension, or to illustrate a paradox (see next entry for more information on paradoxes). Example include deafening silence, organized chaos, cruelly kind, insanely logical, etc.

9. Paradox:

A paradox is a statement that appears illogical or self-contradictory but, upon investigation, might be true or plausible. Note that a paradox is different from an oxymoron: a paradox is an entire phrase or sentence, whereas an oxymoron is a combination of just two words. An example of this is the famous paradoxical sentence: “This statement is false.” If the statement is true, then it isn’t false (as it suggests). But if it’s false, then the statement is true!

Thus, this statement is a paradox because it is both true and false at the same time. Another popular example is seen in William Wordsworth’s poem titled “My Heart Leaps Up”. In the poem seventh line, the example “The child is the father of the man” is seen. This indicates that the character that we form as children stay with us into our adult life.

10. Personification:

Personification is when a nonhuman figure or other abstract concept or element is described as having human-like qualities or characteristics. (Unlike anthropomorphism where non-human figures become human-like characters, with personification, the object/figure is simply described as being human-like.) Personification is used to help the reader create a clearer mental picture of the scene or object being described. Examples include:” The computer swallowed its floppies”; “The wind moaned, beckoning me to come outside” and “The sun is smiling at me”.

11. Repetition:

Repetition is when a word or phrase is written multiple times, usually for emphasis. It is often used in poetry (for purposes of rhythm as well). An example is seen in the Tony Awards where Lin-Manuel Miranda recited a poem he had written with the following line: “And love is love is love is love is love is love is love is love cannot be killed or swept aside”.

12. Synecdoche:

A synecdoche is a literary device in which part of something is used to represent the whole or vice versa. It’s similar to a metonym. However, a metonym doesn’t have to represent the whole – just something associated with the word used. An example is: “Help me out, I need some hands!” In this case, “hands” is being used to refer to people (the whole human, essentially).

In our next class, we will be talking more about the Figures of Speech. We hope you enjoyed the class.

Welcome to class!

In today’s class, we will be talking more about figures of speech. Enjoy the class!

Figures of Speech II

Figures of speech english classnotesng

Types

Metaphor:

A metaphor is a figure of speech that describes a subject by asserting that it is, on some point of comparison, the same as another otherwise unrelated object. Metaphor is a type of analogy and is closely related to other rhetorical figures of speech that achieve their effects via association, comparison or resemblance including allegory, hyperbole and simile. An example of this is “The world is a stage”. Here, the world is compared to the stage where things are acted on.

Simile:

It is a figure of speech that expresses comparison or likeness that directly compares two objects through some connective word such as like, as, so, than, or a verb such as resembles. Although similes and metaphors are generally seen as interchangeable, similes acknowledge the imperfections and limitations of the comparative relationship to a greater extent than metaphors. Similes also hedge/protect the author against outrageous, incomplete, or unfair comparison. Generally, metaphor is the stronger and more encompassing of the two forms of rhetorical analogies. An example is “John is as meek as a sheep”. In this example, John is said to have the quality of a sheep, which is meek.

Assonance:

This is the repetition of vowel sounds to create internal rhyming within phrases or sentences, and together with alliteration and consonance serve as one of the building blocks of verse. Assonance is a rhyme, the identity of which depends merely on the vowel sounds. Thus, assonance is merely a syllabic resemblance. Assonance is found more often in verse than in prose. It is used in mainly modern English language poetry and is particularly important in Old French, Spanish and the Celtic languages. An example of assonance is: “Men sell the wedding bells”. In this example, observe that the vowel sound “e” is seen to be repeated in each word that makes up this line in the poem.

Consonance:

This is the repetition of a consonant sound and is typically used to refer to the repetition of sounds at the end of the word, but also refers to repeated sounds in the middle of a word. Example of this is seen in: “Pitter Patter, Pitter Patter”. The repetitions of the “t” and “r” consonant sounds are what is called consonance.

Pun:

This is also called paronomasia. It is a form of wordplay or play on word that suggests two or more meanings, by exploring multiple meaning of words, or of similar-sounding words, for an intended humorous or rhetorical effect. These ambiguities can arise from the intentional use of homophonic, homographic, metonymic, or metaphorical language. A pun differs from a malapropism in that a malapropism uses an incorrect expression that alludes to another (usually correct) expression, but a pun uses a correct expression that alludes to another (sometimes correct but more often absurdly humorous) expression. Henri Bergson defined a pun as a sentence or utterance in which “the same sentence appears to offer two independent meanings, but it is only an appearance, in reality, there are two different sentences made up of different words, but claiming to be the same because both have the same sound”. Puns may be regarded as in-jokes or idiomatic constructions, given that their usage and meaning are entirely local to a particular language and its culture. An example is seen in Oscar Wilde’s play titled The Importance of Being Earnest, where a character, Jack says: “I always told you, Gwendolen, my name was Ernest, didn’t I? Well, it is Ernest after all. I mean it naturally is Ernest”.

Rhetorical Question:

This is a figure of speech in the form of a question that is asked to make a point. The question, a rhetorical device, is posed not to elicit a specific answer, but rather to encourage the listener to consider a message or viewpoint. Though classically stated as a proper question, such a device may be posed declaratively by implying a question, and therefore may not always require a direct answer. In many cases, it may be intended to start a discussion or at least draw an acknowledgement that the listener understands the intended message. An example of this is: “What’s in a name? That which we call a rose by any other name would smell as sweet!”

Antithesis:

This is used when two opposites are introduced in the same sentence, for contrasting effect. Examples of this include: “Man proposes, God disposes”; “Speech is silver, but silence is golden”; “Love is an ideal thing, marriage a real thing”; “Give every man thy ear, but few thy voice”.

Metonymy:

This is a figure of speech in which one word or phrase is substituted for another with which it is closely associated (such as “crown” for “royalty”). Metonymy is also the rhetorical strategy of describing something indirectly by referring to things around it, as in describing someone’s clothing to characterize the individual. An example is: “The pen is mightier than the sword”. Here, pen refers to written words, and sword refers to military force.

Epigram:

An epigram is a brief, interesting, memorable, and sometimes surprising or satirical statement. It is a short witty saying of proverbial wisdom. An example is: “I can resist everything but temptation”. Oscar Wilde uses this remarkably witty epigram in one of his works. The temptation is by definition, something we attempt to resist. By saying he can resist everything but temptation, the speaker is also saying he can resist nothing.

Malapropism:

It is also known as dogberryism or malaprop. This is the use of an incorrect word in place of a word with a similar sound, resulting in a nonsensical, sometimes humorous utterance. An example is: “Texas has a lot of electrical votes”, rather than “electoral votes”. Another example is: “The doctor administered the anecdote”, rather than “antidote”.

Anaphora:

This is the deliberate repetition of a certain word or phrase at the beginning of successive lines of writing or speech. It can be used in novels and short stories, but it is commonly seen in poetry, essays and formal speeches. It appeals to the feelings, or pathos of your audience. It makes the reader or listener start to anticipate the next line, and therefore draw them into the words through a sense of participation. Thus, they are more receptive to the emotional resonance you are trying to get across. Also, feelings such as anger, fear, solidarity, or even nostalgia are evoked when anaphora is used. Martin Luther King Junior’s speech titled “I Have a Dream” is seen to employ this figure of speech:

“Now is the time to make real promises of democracy. Now is the time to rise from the dark and desolate valley of segregation to the sunlit path of racial justice. Now is the time to lift our nation from the quicksands of racial injustice to the solid rock of brotherhood. Now is the time to make justice a reality for all of God’s children.”

Observe that at each successive sentence beginning of Martin Luther King Junior’s speech which is underlined as seen above, he repeats certain phrases in his speech. This, in view, is an anaphora.

What is poetry?

Poetry is the genre of literature that is written in lines and verses, it makes use of

condensed language to pass across messages and also elicit emotions from the

reader.

The types of poetry in literature include;

1. Sonnet

2. Ode

3. Lyrics

4. Elegy

5. Ballad

6. Panegyric

7. Epic

8. Narrative poem

9. Dramatic poem

10. Pastoral poem

11. Limerick

12. Villanelle

13. Blank/Free verse

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Types Of Poetry(I)

1. Sonnet

The sonnet is a 14lines poem and it has a fixed rhyme scheme subject to the type

of sonnet it is.

There are three types of a sonnet;

i. Italian Sonnet

This is the first form of the sonnet, the fourteen lines are divided into two; an

octave (eight lines) and a sestet (six lines).

The rhyme scheme is ABBA ABBA for the first eight lines and CDE CDE or CDCDCD

for the second part.

ii. English or Shakespearean Sonnet

This came after the Italian Sonnet and was developed in England during the

Elizabethan Era.

The fourteen lines are divided into four groups; 3 quatrains ( a quatrain has four

lines) and a couplet ( two lines).

The rhyme scheme is ABAB CDCD EFEF GG.

iii. Miltonic Sonnet

This type evolved from the Shakespearean Sonnet and they usually have themes

about internal struggles instead of that of the material world.

It should be noted that the Miltonic Sonnet sometimes does not conform to the

the traditional rule regarding the length of the sonnet.

Types Of Poetry(I)

1. Sonnet

The sonnet is a 14lines poem and it has a fixed rhyme scheme subject to the type

of sonnet it is.

There are three types of a sonnet;

i. Italian Sonnet

This is the first form of the sonnet, the fourteen lines are divided into two; an

octave (eight lines) and a sestet (six lines).

The rhyme scheme is ABBA ABBA for the first eight lines and CDE CDE or CDCDCD

for the second part.

ii. English or Shakespearean Sonnet

This came after the Italian Sonnet and was developed in England during the

Elizabethan Era.

The fourteen lines are divided into four groups; 3 quatrains ( a quatrain has four

lines) and a couplet ( two lines).

The rhyme scheme is ABAB CDCD EFEF GG.

iii. Miltonic Sonnet

This type evolved from the Shakespearean Sonnet and they usually have themes

about internal struggles instead of that of the material world.

It should be noted that the Miltonic Sonnet sometimes does not conform to the

the traditional rule regarding the length of the sonnet.

Types Of Poetry(III)

8. Narrative Poem

A narrative poem tells a story and it revolves around a character or many

characters and what they go through in the form of poetry.

9. Dramatic Poem

It contains elements of drama. The poem is usually like a monologue or a dialogue

in structure.

10. Pastoral Poem

This is a poem that is centered on the natural, serene, and simplistic charm of rural

people, most especially shepherds. It focuses on the beauty of rural living and

compares It with city life.

11. Limerick

This is a funny poem that has five lines and the rhyme scheme is AABBA.

12. Villanelle

It is similar to the limerick but consists of nineteen lines with refrains and rhyming

sounds in the first and third lines.

13. Blank/Free verse

This refers to a poem that does have lines that rhyme.

Poetic Devices(I)

1. Structure

This is the arrangement of words and sounds in poetry to convey meaning.

Poems are divided into stanzas and lines.

2. Imagery

This is the use of language to appeal to the five senses. When imagery is used well

in a poem, mental representations of the words are created in the mind of the

reader.

There are five types of Imagery, they are;

i. Visual Imagery

This deals with using words that can paint a mental image in the mind of the

reader.

ii. Auditory Imagery

Using words to create imagery that has to do with sound and hearing.

iii. Olfactory Imagery

Using words to create imagery that represents smell.

iv. Gustatory Imagery

This type of imagery deals with the representation of taste.

iv. Tactile Imagery

Using words to create a mental image of touch.

Poetic Devices(II)

3. Diction

This has to do with the writer's choice of words.

There are two types of diction, these are;

i. Formal Diction

This type of diction follows the rule of grammar and uses elevated language.

ii. Informal Diction

It does not conform strictly to grammatical rules. The writer makes use of

idiomatic expressions, slang, etc.

4. Persona

The persona of a poem is not the poet, it is the character taken on by the poet in

a poem.

5. Sound

This is the use of certain sounds in poetry to create a special effect and help

readers understand and connect to the subject matter.

Below are some of the sound devices employed in poetry;

i. Rhythm/ Rhyme

Rhyme is the repetition of words that sound alike at the end of lines in a poem.

Rhythm is the pattern of recurrence of certain sounds within a poem

ii. Repetition

This is the recurrence of words, sounds, lines, stanzas, etc. in a poem to create

emphasis.

iii. Pun

This is referred to as a play on words, it is usually used to create humor by using

a word that suggests two or more meanings or by using words that sound alike

but have different meanings.

iv. Onomatopoeia

This is the use of words to imitate sounds.

For example;

mew, buzz, swish, crack, etc.

6. Tone/ Mood

The tone is the way the poet treats the subject matter of the poem, the choice of words will determine this.

The mood is the emotional quality of a poem, it is determined by the setting, subject

matter and tone of the poem.

Dramatic Techniques(I)

These are the techniques that are used in drama to achieve its aims.

These techniques include;

1. Characterization

This is a device that the author uses to introduce the character; his behavior,

opinion, views, etc., and also what the other characters think about him.

2. Dialogue

This is the bedrock of drama, it involves verbal communication between the actors

on stage.

It is used to convey information from actor to actor and also from the actors to

the audience.

3. Flashback

This means remembering something from the past, this is used in drama to bring

about more information about the present by revisiting the past.

4. Mime

This is a form of communication without dialogue, it makes use of gestures, facial

expressions and movements to convey emotions and actions.

Dramatic Techniques(I)

These are the techniques that are used in drama to achieve its aims.

These techniques include;

1. Characterization

This is a device that the author uses to introduce the character; his behavior,

opinion, views, etc., and also what the other characters think about him.

2. Dialogue

This is the bedrock of drama, it involves verbal communication between the actors

on stage.

It is used to convey information from actor to actor and also from the actors to

the audience.

3. Flashback

This means remembering something from the past, this is used in drama to bring

about more information about the present by revisiting the past.

4. Mime

This is a form of communication without dialogue, it makes use of gestures, facial

expressions and movements to convey emotions and actmessage.

Types of Drama(II)

4. Melodrama

This type of drama is written and performed to elicit a feeling in the audience, it is

usually exaggerated and has a simple theme.

Examples;

The Heiress By Henry James.

The Joys Of Motherhood By Buchi Emecheta.

5. Farce

A farce is a form of drama that makes use of violence, situations that are not

probable, exaggeration, and violence while being humorous.

It is considered to be inferior to comedy and everything is absurd in farce.

Examples;

The Importance Of Being Ernest By Oscar Wilde.

Comedy of Errors By Williams Shakespeare.

6. Opera

Opera is a type of drama that is not only performed on stage through dialogue

but also through music and dance

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4. Melodrama

This type of drama is written and performed to elicit a feeling in the audience, it is

usually exaggerated and has a simple theme.

Examples;

The Heiress By Henry James.

The Joys Of Motherhood By Buchi Emecheta.

5. Farce

A farce is a form of drama that makes use of violence, situations that are not

probable, exaggeration, and violence while being humorous.

It is considered to be inferior to comedy and everything is absurd in farce.

Examples;

The Importance Of Being Ernest By Oscar Wilde.

Comedy of Errors By Williams Shakespeare.

6. Opera

Opera is a type of drama that is not only performed on stage through dialogue

but also through music and dance

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Dramatic Techniques(II)

5. Costume

This device involves how characters dress, it is used to show who they are, the time

in which the play is set, social status, etc.

6. Music/ Dance

The choice of music is also essential in passing across a message when

performing drama on stage.

7. Acts/ Scenes

Drama is divided into acts and scenes, it is used to make it easier for the audience

and the actors to flow and understand the play.

An act is made up of a series of scenes.

8. Soliloquy/Aside

Soliloquy is a technique used to make the audience aware of a character's

thoughts, it is the act of talking aloud to oneself without paying attention to the

presence of others.

Aside is used to pass information to the audience by an actor without the

knowledge of other actors on stage.

10. Decor/ Scenery

This has to do with the setting and decoration of the stage for a performance.

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Literary Terms/Devices(I)

Literary terms and devices are the techniques, styles, and structure used in

literature.

They include;

1. Foreshadowing

This device is used by the writer to hint at something that will happen later in a story. It usually appears at the beginning of a story in order to make the reader

look forward to what is to happen.

2. Suspense

This is a device that the writer uses to keep the reader's interest alive by making

them anticipate what is going to happen.

3. Theatre

This is a term that refers to a building that is designed for the performance of

plays.

4. Monologue

This is a performance that is done by just one person.

Literary Terms/Devices(I)

Literary terms and devices are the techniques, styles, and structure used in

literature.

They include;

1. Foreshadowing

This device is used by the writer to hint at something that will happen later in a story. It usually appears at the beginning of a story in order to make the reader

look forward to what is to happen.

2. Suspense

This is a device that the writer uses to keep the reader's interest alive by making

them anticipate what is going to happen.

3. Theatre

This is a term that refers to a building that is designed for the performance of

plays.

4. Monologue

This is a performance that is done by just one perresolved.iterary Terms/Devices(II)

5. Dialogue

This is a conversational exchange between two or more characters.

6. Symbolism

It is the use of symbols to represent qualities and ideas that are different from

what they mean literally.

7. Satire

This is a literary device that is used to expose and ridicule human vices through the

use of sarcasm, irony, etc.

8. Stream Of Consciousness

This is a device that is used to narrate the events happening in the flow of thought

of the characters.

9. Deus Ex Machina

This is a technique in the literature that involves the introduction of a person or thing

who offers a solution to a difficult situation.

10. Refrain

This is the repetition of a part of a poem, it appears at the end of a stanza or

between two stanzas.

11. Climax

The climax is the point in a story where the conflict is at its highest point.

12. Theme.

This is the main idea or the meaning of a literary work.

13. Tragic Flaw.

This refers to the trait of a hero that leads to his death in a tragedic drama.

14. Plot.

This refers to the sequence of events in a story.

15. Denouement.

This refers to the point at which the conflict in a story is resolved.

Concepts in Literary Appreciation(I)

Literature is divided into three genres; drama, prose, and poetry, and each of these

genres have features of their own, the writer makes use of these features to catch

the attention of their readers, this is called Literary Appreciation.

Here are some of the concepts used in Literary Appreciation;

1. Alliteration

This is the repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words in lines of

poetry.

Examples;

The furrow followed the free ( F is repeated).

2. Bathos

This is the point in literature when a writer loses the point while trying to sound

pathetic, passionate, or clever which is usually unintended.

Examples;

'For God, for Country, and for Yale.

3. Diction

This refers to the choice of words of the writer, it could be simple, complex, plain,

figurative etc.

4. Allegory

This is a literary work in which the narrative and the characters have a symbolic or

metaphorical meaning.

Examples;

George Orwell's Animal Farm.

Concepts in Literary Appreciation(II)

5. Apostrophe

This is when a writer addresses a thing, an abstract entity, or an absent person.

Example;

Death, be not proud. (Death is being addressed).

6. Bildungsroman

This is a German word that refers to a novel about growth. It is often about the

growth and experiences of the protagonist from childhood.

Example;

Charlotte Bronte's Jane Eyre.

7. Allusion

This is a reference to a person, a place, event, or a saying or story from the bible to

signify something.

Example;

A reference to Nelson Mandela signifies freedom struggle and African Leadership.

8. Anti-thesis

This is the use of two opposite phrases or clauses in a sentence to show a

balanced view.

Hajiz